Abstract
The three-quanta threshold for particle formation [1] and the mechanism of particle motion [2] are reviewed showing how these discoveries provided a basis for a new law of motion in physics [3].
Road to the Law of Motion
In 1994, the "Binary Mechanics" paper presented full quantization of energy, space and time, with equations for system state and its time development, without input from, or use of, any "unexplained measurements", wrongly known as "fundamental constants". "Binary Mechanics" (BM) was published in JBinMech in 2010 [4].
Fig. 1: Electron Cycle
[Updated: November 19, 2020]
Abstract and Introduction
Analysis of energy quanta distributions among spatial objects called spots [1] [2] revealed two quantum-level phenomena relevant to gravitation: dispersion and concentration of energy quanta (Fig. 1). First, in a lower energy density range, spots with multiple energy quanta dispersed, or lost, energy which was distributed to spots with initial lower, even zero, energy content. Second, at higher energy density, spots concentrated energy more than expected by random distribution. In brief, quantum analysis of spatial distribution of energy (and/or mass) identified two mechanisms which disperse or concentrate energy probably relevant to gravitational phenomena. A third mechanism was the effect of surface temperature on gravitation reported previously [3] [4] [5] [6]. The present results further integrate gravitation and space-time-energy quantization in binary mechanics and support a multi-factor treatment of gravity-related phenomena.
Fig. 1: Spot Energy Distribution vs Energy Density
[Updated: May 27, 2018]
Abstract and Introduction
Related to the momentum concept, many L type 1-state bits may represent future particle motion [1]. Toward precise definition of leptons and quarks, elementary particle states were studied at zero Kelvin where particle motion is zero [2] thereby removing this momentum-related component. Results confirm previous reports [3] [4] where eight elementary particles [5] may be clearly distinguished by their specific states (Figs. 1 to 3). To further assess the effect of extreme cooling on system state, two conditions were compared: 1) zero Kelvin with zero particle motion and 2) a greater energy density with higher temperature and particle motion (Figs. 4 and 5). These data provide specific event detection criteria which may be incorporated in system state time-evolution and analysis software.
Fig. 1: Summary: Elementary Particle States at Zero Kelvin
Abstract and Introduction
Matter creation based on electron and proton counts was examined after a simulated volume cooled to zero degrees Kelvin as a function of initial energy density. Findings include (1) lowest matter creation occurred starting from maximum energy density (1.0) and "perfect vacuum" density (0.1), (2) greatest matter creation was produced when starting from 0.3 energy density and (3) the SUVF bit operations order produced the greatest matter creation, compared to the VSUF and SVUF orders.
Background
Studies using the boosted energies of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN may provide only a primitive, keyhole view of possible events in the entire energy density range from absolute vacuum to absolute maximum energy density. Absolute vacuum and absolute maximum energy density are consequences of quantization of space and energy in binary mechanics (BM) [1] aka "full quantum mechanics". Energy was quantized by limiting spatial objects called bit loci to 0-states or 1-states. Then, absolute vacuum could be defined as a volume with all 0-state bit loci [2]. Note that so-called "perfect vacuum" may contain up to about 10% 1-state bit loci and is therefore not "empty space" (e.g., [3]). At the other extreme, absolute maximum energy density is achieved with all bit loci in a volume in the 1-state. The BM system state, named the bit function, is the spatial distribution of 1- and 0-state bits. With space and time quantization, infinitesimal operators in "partial quantum mechanics" (QM) were not applicable mathematically. Thus, four bit operations -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F), were based on relativistic Dirac spinor equations [1] [4] implementing time-development of the system state. Since results depend on bit operations order, only one order can be physically correct [5].
Abstract and Introduction
Identified matter-antimatter asymmetry mechanisms have indicated that predominance of matter over antimatter results from ongoing processes in the present [1], not from events in the distant past in the early universe. With space-time quantization in binary mechanics (BM) [2], quantum mechanics (QM) time-development operators with infinitesimal increments in position or time were no longer applicable mathematically. Hence, four bit operations -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F), were defined based on relativistic Dirac spinor equations. Since results depend on bit operations order [3], a major research objective is to determine the one and only physically correct bit operations order. The present research question was: which bit operation orders favor matter creation in present real-time? This study found that VSUF, SVUF and SUVF orders produce matter creation (Figs. 1 and 2) and eliminated the USVF, UVSF and VUSF orders based on this criterion.
Fig. 1: Matter Creation: Electrons
Legend: 1-state bit density: probability a bit locus is in 1-state. Exp: expected based on random distribution of 1-state bits. SUVF, SVUF, VSUF: bit operations order. Red arrows: absolute maximum temperature (maximum S + V counts).
Abstract and Introduction
The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) consists of twin satellites launched in March 2002 to make "detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field which will lead to discoveries about gravity" [1]. This report presents two such discoveries which provide additional confirmation of the prediction that object surface temperature increases gravitational force [2] [3], originally discovered with lunar laser ranging and lunar orbit perigee data [4]. First, comparing 13 years (2003 - 2015) of GRACE ocean data subtracting the coldest month (January) from the warmest month (July) in the northern hemisphere, GRACE showed greater gravity in the northern hemisphere when warmer (Fig. 1, right) and decreased gravity in the southern hemisphere when cooler (Fig. 1, left). Second, the product-moment correlation of the average GRACE ocean gravity measurements and ocean surface temperature (SST) over the available latitude data range was 0.697, suggesting that about one half (49%) of GRACE gravity measures in fact reflect ocean surface temperature, as predicted.
Methods and Results
Fig. 1: GRACE Gravity (July minus January mean, sem) vs Latitude
Abstract and Introduction
Light velocity at zero degrees Kelvin was examined. Major results of previous reports were replicated [1] [2]. First, light speed was zero at low vacuum energy (1-state bit) densities. That is, the hypothesis that the lowest vacuum densities are opaque to light transmission [3] was confirmed with improved measurement methods. Second, light speed decreased from its maximum velocity as energy density decreased. Third, light velocity was approximately equal to 1/Ď€ in bit velocity units [4], where bit velocity is d/t and d and t are the quantized fundamental length and time constants respectively. These results (1) change the status of Einstein's Special Relativity statement of constant light speed c in a vacuum independent of signal source velocity from postulate to known mechanism and (2) limit the vacuum density range in which light speed c may, in fact, be constant [1] and (3) highlight issues in light speed measurement methods.
Methods and Results
Fig. 1: Light Speed at Zero Kelvin vs Energy Density
Legend: Bit density: energy (1-state bit) density as proportion of maximum possible energy density. Light speed expressed in bit velocity units.
Abstract and Introduction
Cooling a simulated system to zero degrees Kelvin [1] is examined in this exploratory pilot study. The zero Kelvin systems produced can be saved and used in other studies as initial states without any electromagnetic (EM) radiation or particle motion. Methods to produce these zero Kelvin states and some results on their properties are presented and discussed.
Methods, Results and Discussion
Fig. 1: Final Densities at Zero Kelvin
Legend: VSUF (blue), SVUF (pink) bit operations order -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F).
The Binary Mechanics Lab Simulator (BMLS) software has been updated. Fig. 1 shows a screen shot of a "laser" experiment. Basic information has been presented previously [1], and might best be consulted first. In addition, further evidence is presented that light velocity c equals bit velocity v / π.
Fig. 1: BMLS Screen Shot
Gravity has been viewed as a primary force by physicists for over a century. As the theory of binary mechanics (BM) [1] developed, the author assumed that gravitation would take its place among the primary forces which generally corresponded to four discrete bit operations -- unconditional, electromagnetic (scalar and vector) and strong, determining the time-development of a physical system. Hence, the initial assumption was that gravity would have its own bit operation to bring the total to five operators on BM states. However, simulation experiments produced gravity-like effects without postulation of any additional gravity-related bit operation, a result that strongly suggested that gravity was not a primary force at all.
Gravitation looses primary force status
In these experiments [2], the initial state consisted of two bodies (volumes with higher 1-state bit densities than surrounding space). Then the four postulated BM bit operations were applied repeatedly, while observing changes in the system. Acceleration of the two bodies toward each other was found and appeared to depend on a higher bit density between the two bodies than in other directions around the bodies. This conclusion was readily observed. Each body radiated 1-state bits to its lower density surroundings. Obviously, the space between the objects would develop a higher 1-state bit density than any other direction.
Abstract presented at April 13-16 APS meeting:
Bulletin of the American Physical Society 58(4) 186 (2013)
Abstract and Introduction
Quantitatively large effects of lunar surface temperature on apparent gravitational force measured by lunar laser ranging (LLR) and lunar perigee may challenge widely accepted theories of gravity. LLR data [1] grouped by days from full moon shows the moon is about 5 percent closer to earth at full moon compared to 8 days before or after full moon. In a second, related result, moon perigees were least distant in days closer to full moon. Moon phase was used as proxy independent variable for lunar surface temperature. These results support the prediction by binary mechanics (BM) [2] that gravitational force increases with object surface temperature [3].
Methods and Results
Fig. 1: Lunar Distance vs Days from Full Moon
Baryogenesis is explained in exact detail by binary mechanics (BM) [1] which shows that the half-life of undisturbed (ground state) electrons and protons is infinite in agreement with reported experimental results. The present data presents the creation of protons at energy densities above their particle threshold and their stability as temperature drops to absolute zero Kelvin.
Methods and Results
BM simulation software [2] -- HotSpot 1.28 -- was run in default mode. Fig. 1 plots EdR in the output .csv file, an index highly correlated with proton count, over 300 simulator Ticks.
Fig. 1: Proton Counts vs Simulator Ticks
Bit operations in binary mechanics (BM) [1] determine the time-development of BM states. The four operations -- unconditional (U), scalar (S, electrostatic), vector (V, magnetic) [2] and strong (F) [3], are thought to occur in separate time intervals (BM ticks) and therefore are applied sequentially. The bit operations do not commute, since the results of any operation can affect results of the others. Hence, only one bit operations order can be a correct representation of all physical phenomena. This report examines some key results as a function of permutations of bit operation order and inertia in the strong force.
Table 1: Effects of Bit Operation Order and Inertia
Legend: Electrons (e-L), positrons (e+R), protons (EdR) and antiprotons (EdL). For mean and std. error, n = 12 (yellow and blue) and n=6 (green)
A major result of binary mechanics (BM) [1] is the limited energy density range over which some basic thermodynamic laws apply. This report examines this result presenting BM simulator data pertaining to the BM prediction of absolute maximum pressure [2]. Previous reports found absolute maximum temperature at energy densities far below their absolute maximum [3] [4]. It follows that the energy density range over which the ideal gas law is applicable is limited. Specifically, the ideal gas constant R is far from constant over the full energy density range from zero to maximum. Over a significant portion of this range, work in nuclear physics has quantified this variation in the gas constant with different GAMMA values.
Methods and Results
Fig. 1 plots pressure as a function of energy (bit) density where 0 and 1 represent zero pressure and energy density and one represents maximum possible values.
Fig. 1: Pressure (y-axis) vs Energy Density (x-axis)
Updated: April 22, 2011
An absolute vacuum in binary mechanics (BM) [1] is a volume with all bits in the zero state, whereas the conventionally defined perfect vacuum only requires the absence of particles such as ions or atoms. A recent report simulated the 84 tick central baryon bit cycle by introducing a single bit in the one state in an absolute vacuum [2]. Thus, the existence of elementary particles thought to consist of two or more bits in each of one or more spots [3] (e.g., the one-spot electron [4]) in an otherwise near absolute vacuum is consistent with the basic laws of BM.
The present study added bits to the vacuum in perturbation steps. Results suggest key thresholds for physical processes, such as absorption, emission, lepton formation and baryon formation. A step toward calibration of BM absolute maximum temperature in degrees Kelvin is discussed.
Temperature-dependence of power and wavelength of bit emission from a simulated cube of binary mechanical (BM) [1] space is presented in this exploratory, pilot study. Results suggest (1) at least five bit density ranges from zero to maximum bit density showing markedly different slopes of emission power versus temperature and (2) at least four different bit density ranges defined by wavelength at which peak power is observed. These striking quantitative differences among bit density ranges may correspond to qualitatively distinct states such as solid, liquid, gas, plasma and perhaps more.
A possible binary mechanical (BM) [1] basis for superconductivity at low temperatures is presented.
Methods
The present data was obtained from the output .csv file of the BM simulator, using procedures described previously for a 48x48x48 spot cube simulation [2] [3]. Per a kinetic motion concept, temperature was operationally defined as the sum of bit motion per Tick due to either scalar (S) or vector (V) potentials. The proportion of bits in electron spots was the ratio of the bits in electron spots (e-L column in output file) to the total bits (Total column).
Results
Fig. 1: Proportion of bits in electron spots vs temperature
Updated: April 19, 2011
Binary mechanics (BM)[1] predicted an absolute maximum temperature which would be found below maximum energy density defined as maximum bit density [2]. A pilot study supported this hypothesis [3]. The present report replicates and polishes these results using a different method. Instead of starting with maximum bit density as in the pilot study, the present report started with a near-zero bit density, slowly adding bits randomly in small perturbation increments in each BM simulator Tick.
Updated: April 19, 2011
Binary mechanics (BM) [1] has predicted [2] that increased temperature is correlated with BM bit density over a wide range and a definite physical limitation on how high temperature could rise. In short, maximum possible temperature was predicted. A further speculation was that maximum possible temperature is attained below maximum bit density at which one might imagine that particle motion is less than the maximum possible, per considerations similar to those applicable in classical statistical mechanics. The present pilot study confirms these predictions based on data obtained with BM simulation software [3].
As implications of the assumptions or postulates of binary mechanics (BM)[1] are explored [2] [3] [4], priority tasks include determination of fundamental constants such as the BM distance unit d in meters and time (tick) unit t in seconds, derivation of other fundamental values such as the proton-electron rest mass ratio and generally, experimental verification that BM postulates and bit operations are both consistent with well-known physical observations (e.g., extremely long life-time of protons and electrons) and indeed provide very low level explanations of these phenomena. This article discusses some issues which may be relevant to successful completion of these goals including a number of BM predictions which may make or break BM as a physical theory.
