Quantum Technology Advance

Abstract
Transition from the quantum mechanics (QM) wave function to the binary mechanics (BM) bit function is inevitable. The wave function wrongly assumes that physical events at multiple points occur at a single point and events may occur at points in space and time that do not exist, due to belief that space and time are continuous rather than quantized. The wave function also fails to adequately represent physical events in the network of concurrent and countercurrent spot unit components of the BM spot cube spatial lattice. Historically, technologies that work have been generally adopted even before underlying physics is fully understood. The "follow the money" rule leads directly to exponential increase in BM technology usage, which improves spatial and temporal resolution by multiple orders of magnitude (Fig. 1), required for continuing progress in industries working at increasingly microscopic "nanotechnology" scales, attracting both physicists and capital investment.

Fig. 1: Increased Spatial and Temporal Resolution

Law of Motion Based on Mechanism of Motion

Abstract
The three-quanta threshold for particle formation [1] and the mechanism of particle motion [2] are reviewed showing how these discoveries provided a basis for a new law of motion in physics [3].

Road to the Law of Motion
In 1994, the "Binary Mechanics" paper presented full quantization of energy, space and time, with equations for system state and its time development, without input from, or use of, any "unexplained measurements", wrongly known as "fundamental constants". "Binary Mechanics" (BM) was published in JBinMech in 2010 [4].
Fig. 1: Electron Cycle

Binary Mechanics Postulates

[Updated: Jan 10, 2025]
Abstract and Introduction
In "Binary mechanics", written in 1994 and published in 2010 [1], the eight-component wave function of a pair of relativisitic Dirac spinor equations of opposite handedness was parsed to define the spot cube model of space. With quantization of energy, space and time, dubbed full quantization, the spot cube provided a new system state representation, called the bit function, at a quantized time. With full quantization, infinitesimal increments in the Dirac equation pair were no longer applicable. Hence, time-development of the system state was defined in four bit operations. The postulates of binary mechanics define primary constants from full quantization and the mathematical definitions of the bit function and bit operations [2].

Fig. 1: Spot Cube Model of Space

Binary Mechanics FAQ

[Updated: June 19, 2020]
How is binary mechanics different from quantum mechanics (QM)?
Legacy QM and General Relativity (GR) utilize continuous space-time theory, while binary mechanics (BM) [1] quantizes both space and time leading to definition of fundamental length L and time T constants. Recall that Planck's constant is an energy-time product (Jsec), not energy quantization per se. BM quantized energy as a 1-state bit (energy quanta) in a size L bit locus cube, expressed as M in kg. In short, BM quantizes the three units of measurement (Fig. 1 from [2]) and defines the system state bit function as a spatial pattern of 1- and 0-state bits [3].

Further, with space-time-energy quantization, infinitesimal time-evolution operators in legacy QM -- e.g., Standard Model (SM) math -- are not applicable since only integer increments are allowed. Hence, four bit operations [4] were based on a pair of relativistic Dirac spinor equations of opposite handedness including electromagnetic field components (Fig. 3 from [5]). In sum, both system state and time-development in BM is full QM, while SM math is partial QM. BM is complete QM, while SM math is incomplete QM.

Fig. 1: Century-Long Race Finish: Derivation of Constants From First Principles

Particle Flux and Motion

Abstract and Introduction
The postulates of binary mechanics (BM) [1] and physical interpretation of BM space [2] define fluxes of 1-state bits between spot units of particles of eight elementary types. Interparticle flux sequences define all possible particle motion events. In sum, the spot cube precisely defines 1) lepton-quark transitions, 2) quark-antiquark transitions, 3) the lepton motion mechanism, 4) lepton-mediated proton motion and 5) proton motion mediated by quark-antiquark transitions (Fig. 1). These interparticle flux and particle motion events form a tree which may be extended to define all possible particle interactions based solely on first principles.

Fig. 1: Discoveries in Particle Flux and Motion Analysis

Particle States Evolution

[Updated: May 12, 2018]
Abstract and Introduction
The effect of the time-evolution bit operations on elementary particle states [1] was examined by comparing proportions of spot states for each particle (spot type) with expected proportions based on random distribution of 1-state bits. Results include: 1) reduced probabilities of absolute vacuum and 2) increased probabilities of selected spot states (M and L bit composition) for each particle type, replicating previous findings [2]. That is, the time-development bit operations alter system state (the bit function) by concentrating 1-state M and L bits in selections of specific spot states in each elementary particle (spot type). These data define 1) a specific role of the magnetic force (vector bit operation) in particle differentiation and 2) a possible operational definition of "magnetic monopoles".

Fig. 1: Expected and Observed Particle Probabilities, E = 0, 1, 2

Quantization Asymmetry

Quantization asymmetry has been defined as physical theories at the atomic and nuclear levels that quantize almost everything except space and time [1]. The continuous space-time assumption in classical and Standard Model (SM) physics and in General Relativity (GR) presently has no known justification other than tradition and superstition. Binary mechanics (BM) [2] may be seen as an instance of quantization asymmetry breaking, so to speak, since it implements quantization symmetry. In 2010, publication of the postulates of BM and some of their consequences began a transition in physics from quantization asymmetry to symmetry. This article outlines some major headlines in this developing story that has impact in virtually all sub-specialities in physics.

Fig. 1: What Death of a Theory Looks Like

Particle Motion Representation

Abstract and Introduction
Observed properties of all so-called elementary particles arise from just four variations of a spatial object named a spot unit [1] [2] [3], among the smallest building blocks underlying physical phenomena described to date. A spot unit contains two binary bits named mite (M) and lite (L) with 0 or 1 allowed states, each located in a cubic bit locus of dimension d, a fundamental length constant [4], quantizing energy and space respectively (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Spot Unit

The M bits have an electric charge attribute and are the electrostatic potential field. The first-ever calculations of Planck's constant h and of electron magnetic moment from first principles [4] [5] suggests that a mass attribute of energy is associated with M or mite bits. The L or lite bits are the magnetic potential field. With space and time quantization, infinitesimal operators in quantum mechanics (QM) are not mathematically applicable. Hence, four time-development bit operations were based on relativistic Dirac spinor equations [6]. One of these, the vector bit operation, accelerates 1-state M bits to L bit loci in a quantized time tick t [7]. Modulo 2 parity of spot unit integer position coordinates determines spot unit direction (eq. 6 in [6]) and hence, motion direction for the scalar, vector and unconditional bit operations. This article presents a demonstration that 1-state L bits represent a motion attribute of energy coding length and direction of 1-state bit position change in subsequent time ticks.

Meson and Baryon Composition

From first principles of binary mechanics (BM) [1], eight and only eight fundamental or elementary particles were derived, each occupying a spatial object named a spot in a spot cube defined from a projection of spinor components of a pair of relativistic Dirac equations of opposite handedness to the eight vertexes of a cube quantizing space [2]. Each vertex or spot was postulated to consist of three perpendicular spot units defined from the two real components of the quantum mechanics (QM) complex wave function, further restricted to 0 or 1 allowed values, quantizing energy. Properties of the eight fundamental particles were then derived from the modulo 2 parities of the integer {x, y, z} spot coordinates in the spatial lattice, including charge, color, matter vs antimatter status, unconditional bit motion direction, handedness (left or right helicity), etc (Table 1 in [1],). These properties were used to show how most Standard Model (SM) lepton and quark particles may be compositions of the eight BM elementary particles [3]. This article adds information on some mesons and baryons, further illustrating their composition from BM particles and how the "three generations of matter" arise naturally from this analysis.

Table 1: Generation 1: Some TWO-d Mesons

Legend: Generation by number of d quarks (TWO-d). r, red; g, green; b, blue. /, antiparticle. X*, spot units in neighboring spot cubes.

Faster Than Light

Binary mechanics (BM) [1] predicts that faster-than-light motion of 1-state bits occurs over specific distances under particular conditions defined by four time-development bit operations [2] -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F) [3] [4].

1-State Fermion Mite Bit Velocities
Distance d = 1. Bit velocity v = d/t where d and t are the fundamental quantized length and time constants [5]. Distance d is presently thought to be approximately 0.6 fm. Time interval t was calculated based on the speculation that so-called "light speed in vacuum" c = v/π (eq. 2 in [5]), approximately 6.34922E-25 seconds in the BM frame. In one time tick t of the unconditional bit operation, all 1-state bits (fermion mites and boson lites) and 0-state bits (1-bit neutrinos) move exactly one distance unit d at bit velocity v. With four bit operations each thought to have duration t, the average unconditional bit velocity over one cycle of bit operations application is v/4. It may be convenient to express these velocities in bit velocity units where light speed is 1/π and average velocity over 4 ticks t due to the unconditional bit operation is 1/4, less than purported light speed.

Fig. 1: Faster-Than-Light 1-State Fermion Mite Bit Motion

Legend: States of spatial objects named spot units over successive ticks (top to bottom). Each spot unit contains two bit loci named mite (circles) and lite (arrows) with 0 (blue) or 1 (black) allowed states. The last row adds view of a bit locus in an adjacent perpendicular spot unit. Strong bit operation direction (purple arrow).

Particles in a Box

Abstract and Introduction
The Binary Mechanics Lab Simulator (BMLS) v1.38.1 [1] records position of particles in proton bit cycles and in electron bit cycles [2] as centers of mass (1-state bits) {r1, r2, r3} and {e1, e2, e3} respectively for each BMLS Tick. Hence, motion of particles in the proton cycle (perhaps mostly protons) and in the electron cycle (electrons) may be studied under various experimental conditions, such as applied electrostatic and magnetic fields, variations in temperature and pressure, etc. For example, zero motion was reported for both particle categories at zero degrees Kelvin [3]. This note presents some motion data and readily observable phenomena. Call it "particles in a box", for those who recall their first lessons in statistical mechanics and quantum mechanics. Most BMLS run time is occupied with generating the screen display, while its bit operations engine uses a small fraction of run time. Thus, BMLS v1.38.1 adds a parameter called "AllTicks". When toggled Off, display and output records to the *.cvs file are done only once per proton bit cycle (21 BMLS Ticks). AllTicks Off is convenient for studies over larger time intervals.

Methods and Results

Fig. 1: Motion of Proton and Electron Cycle Bits: XY Plane, All Ticks

Legend: Center of mass (1-state bits) motion for proton bit cycle (left) and electron bit cycle (right). 20000 BMLS Ticks. 32x32x32 spot volume. Initial Density 0.24

Zero Degrees Kelvin

Abstract and Introduction
Cooling a simulated system to zero degrees Kelvin [1] is examined in this exploratory pilot study. The zero Kelvin systems produced can be saved and used in other studies as initial states without any electromagnetic (EM) radiation or particle motion. Methods to produce these zero Kelvin states and some results on their properties are presented and discussed.

Methods, Results and Discussion

Fig. 1: Final Densities at Zero Kelvin

Legend: VSUF (blue), SVUF (pink) bit operations order -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F).

Bell Inequality Violation Myth Debunked

The myth that Bell inequality violation establishes superluminal causality is debunked. Entanglement experiments designed to demonstrate non-local effects apparently all rely on Bell's theorem also known as the Bell inequality. However, Bell himself stated, "There is a way to escape the inference of superluminal speeds and spooky action at a distance. But it involves absolute determinism in the universe..." (ref. 5 in [1]). Therefore, according to Bell, the exact time-development laws called bit operations [2] [3] [4] in binary mechanics (BM) [5] prevent particle entanglement experiments from demonstrating non-local "spooky action at a distance". This inescapable conclusion debunks the myth that the Bell inequality can be used in entanglement experiments to demonstrate superluminal effects and implies that quantum mechanics (QM) assumptions that system time-evolution is fundamentally probabilistic (not exact) are questionable. In short, use of the Bell inequality in entanglement experiments acts to establish that legacy QM formalism has been hopelessly flawed, no doubt including the unjustified assumption of continuous space-time.
Fig. 1: Unintended Result Surprises Investigators

Legend: Believers in superliminal causality face their worst nightmare, caught in the headlights of binary mechanics.

Polchinski's "New Normal" Physics

In the last 48 hours, physicist Joseph Polchinski -- noted for string theory work including two textbooks -- revealed what may be the "new normal" in science, namely, good questions and verifiable facts are to be deleted and banned. His behavior took me completely by surprise. As background, several years ago I wrote: "String theories may turn out to be one of the strongest factors favoring the acceptance of quantized space and time as postulated in [binary mechanics] BM, according to the 'when all else fails...' rule" [1]. Now noted string theorist Polchinski appears to reveal a sort of totalitarianism in physics today. In sum, at least one string theory practitioner may have significant anti-science issues.

Fig. 1: Keene's Initial Comment and Polchinski's Second Reply
Legend: Note four replies -- two from Keene and two from Polchinski.

Physics Standard Model Forensics

Let us play detective and do some physics Standard Model (SM) forensics. The main research question is the mystery of the paucity of basic progress in physics for some six decades. This is our crime scene, so to speak, and we seek some clues concerning how about two generations of physicists could be fooled into an almost religious belief in continuous space-time. Our journey has three parts: first, reminder on the definition of a geometric point; second, the delta function of the great physicist Paul Dirac; and third, usage of this nonsensical math in the current physics SM.

If You Want to Keep Your Higgs Boson...

This note reports additional information regarding "If you like your Higgs boson, you can keep your Higgs boson" and other lost causes in the Standard Model (SM). With the quantization of space, time and energy in binary mechanics (BM) [1], infinitesimal time-development operators in conventional quantum mechanics (QM) were no longer mathematically applicable since only integer increments in spatial position and time were allowed. Thus, four binary bit operations were defined -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F), each occurring in a time tick t in a time-development cycle of duration T (4t). The unconditional bit operation corresponds to the momentum operator, leaving three fundamental forces defined by the scalar (electrostatic), vector (magnetic) and strong bit operations [2]. Only one bit operations order can be fully correct physics since each may affect the results obtained by others [3].

"...You can keep your Higgs boson." Fig. 1 shows force incidence as a function of bit density in a simulated 64x64x64 spot volume.

Fig. 1: Force Bit Operations Counts vs Bit Density

Legend: Counts for scalar (blue), vector (purple) and strong (yellow) bit operations from absolute vacuum (0 bit density) [4] to maximum bit density (1) for six permutations of bit operations order.

Light Speed Amendment

Updated: April 17, 2015
Abstract and Introduction
In this pilot study, the hypothesis that absolute vacuum, defined as zero bit (energy) density [1], is opaque to electromagnetic (EM, light) transmission posed in 2011 [2] was confirmed using simulated volumes with bit densities ranging from zero to 0.30 expressed as proportion of maximum possible density. At zero bit density, light speed c was zero. The first detectable light transmission was seen at 0.10 bit density. Light speed c increased with increased bit densities through partial vacuum levels. An essentially constant light velocity c was obtained only at higher bit densities at and above approximately 0.15, thereby limiting the energy density range over which light speed invariance postulated in Special Relativity occurs. Thus, the Special Relativity postulate of "light speed invariance in a vacuum" was correct only for higher vacuum (bit) density ranges. The postulates of binary mechanics (BM) [3] generated the present hypothesis and explain the underlying mechanisms for the reported results.

Methods and Results

Fig. 1: Delay in Arrival of Wave Front with Two Bit Operations Orders.

Higgs Boson Buries Standard Model?

Abstract and Introduction
Contrary to common belief, work on the Higgs field and boson [1] may be a significant nail in the coffin for the Standard Model (SM) in physics. The scalar Higgs field may in fact describe adjacent pairs of spot units which implement the strong bit operation ("strong force") in binary mechanics (BM) [2]. With the discovery of the central baryon bit cycle [3], this binary definition of the strong force is the basis for quark confinement. Observed particle motion requires 1-state bit emission from one baryon cycle with subsequent absorption by another cycle. The Higgs boson may represent one or more instances of strong force scattering which confines 1-state bits in cycles and thereby prevents particle motion. Recall that particle mass, as the force/acceleration ratio, describes the inverse of the likelihood of such particle motion. The so-called Higgs mechanism is said to confer mass on fermion particles, a concept apparently equivalent to confinement of 1-state bits in cycles. This speculative article steps through this process and discusses some consequences, namely diminished SM and enhanced BM credibility.

Non-Zero Proton Electric Dipole Moment

Proton electric dipole moment (EDM) d_p equals 8.534265E-32 ecm, calculated from positions of charged 1-state bits in the central baryon bit cycle [1] model of the proton [2] (Fig. 1), elementary charge e and the estimated fundamental length d [3] based on binary mechanics (BM) postulates [4] and nucleon scattering data [5]. This d_p is deemed to be accurate to at least 7 digits based on (1) the CODATA accuracy for elementary charge e, (2) the integer position coordinates are exact, (3) the assumption that the charges are centered on the coordinate grid shown and (4) only one 1-state bit circulating in the central baryon bit cycle. The BM prediction of zero electron EDM has been confirmed by observations conducted by two independent labs deemed to be reliable [6]. The present non-zero proton EDM result is consistent with all experimental measurements to date [7] and is discussed regarding P and T symmetry issues.

Fig. 1: Electric Charge Positions in Central Baryon Bit Cycle

Legend: Centers (0 - 4) of bit loci (approx. 0.6 fm cubes of quantized space) viewed from the XY plane and rotated 90 degrees, the YZ plane, showing charge densities -- positive: red (2), light red and orange (1) and negative: yellow (2), light yellow and orange (1).

Non-Spherical Proton Shape

Binary mechanics (BM) has predicted a non-spherical proton shape, supported by accumulating experimental data and quantum chromodynamic (QCD) modeling. This paper further documents the non-spherical shape of the proton, highlighting clear advantages of BM over QCD. Based on a pair of relativistic Dirac spinor equations of opposite handedness, quantization of space, time and energy was proposed in a 1994 paper presenting BM [1]. As a result, quantum mechanical (QM) formalism evolved into (1) the bit function replacing the wave function for an irreducible representation of the state of any physical system and (2) four fundamental bit operations replacing infinitesimal operators for system time evolution [2]. With time quantization in discrete tick t units, Planck's constant h for an action quanta could then be parsed to define energy quanta as 1-state binary bits independent of time or frequency considerations. Another consequence of BM postulates was discovery of a cyclical circulation of 1-state bits in a quantized spatial structure named a spot cube (Fig. 3A in [1]). With a physical interpretation of BM space [3] and simulation software [4], this 1-state bit circulation was further described as an 84 tick central baryon bit cycle, detailing the physical basis for quark confinement [5].

Fig. 1: 1-State Bit Density in Central Baryon Bit Cycle
Legend: Centers (0 - 4) of bit loci (approx. 0.6 fm cubes of quantized space) with densities of 1 (light grey), 2 (grey) and 4 (black) 1-state bits viewed from the XY plane and rotated 90 degrees, the YZ plane.