Binary Mechanics Equations

Let's try to understand more about binary mechanics (BM) by looking at its equations [1]. Fig. 1 shows the only mathematics needed are three binary logic ideas. A three year old child already knows them because these three math ideas are built into understanding and speaking language. The first of these three ideas is the one digit binary number, zero or one, yes or no, full or empty. Second is AND logic. Its truth table determines if "Jack and Jill went up the hill" is true. If Jack went up the hill is true and Jill went up the hill is true, then the AND function ouput is one, namely that both Jack and Jill went up the hill. Any other combination is not true. The third idea is NOT logic. If we have a zero, we make it a one; if we have a one input, we make it a zero out. So you don't need math based on continuous Space-Time Theory using real numbers for every point in space and time popular in the failed Standard Model math formulations [2] which at best can only approximate physical events [3] and which look terrible (Fig. 1, lower).

Fig. 1: Three Math Ideas Can Build Fully Functional Universe

Law of Motion Based on Mechanism of Motion

Abstract
The three-quanta threshold for particle formation [1] and the mechanism of particle motion [2] are reviewed showing how these discoveries provided a basis for a new law of motion in physics [3].

Road to the Law of Motion
In 1994, the "Binary Mechanics" paper presented full quantization of energy, space and time, with equations for system state and its time development, without input from, or use of, any "unexplained measurements", wrongly known as "fundamental constants". "Binary Mechanics" (BM) was published in JBinMech in 2010 [4].
Fig. 1: Electron Cycle

Motion Law: Gravitation Edition

Abstract and Introduction
As a consequence of binary mechanics (BM) fundamentals [1], a motion law states that objects tend to move in the direction of higher vacuum energy density [2]. As background, topics discussed include particles as compositions of multiple quanta, the mechanism of particle movement as a flux of individual quanta [3], the most likely motion direction and the equivalence of the gravitational field within a solid object and a quanta density gradient in its perfect vacuum component [4]. Predictions from this model have been confirmed by experimental results of Alex L Dmitriev et al, reporting weight decease with a (1) heated brass rod, (2) heating a piezo ceramic pile, (3) laser injection in optical fibers and (4) in gyros proportional to spin frequency and with horizontal more than vertical spin axis. The role of temperature in gravity-like effects has now been studied in two broad categories: distant objects not in direct contact and the special case of a weighed object resting on a scale.

Fig. 1: Motion Law At Single Particle Level

Vacuum Composition

Abstract and Introduction
Assertions that perfect vacuum and almost all of the volume of a single atom are "empty space" are questionable. In a replication of a previous simulation experiment [1] with additional analysis, perfect vacuum was defined as total energy density minus electron and nucleon particle density. Examining the entire range of non-zero energy quanta (1-state bit) densities, only about 12 percent or less of the quanta were associated with particles, indicating that perfect vacuum was composed of about 88 percent or more of quanta in the final state after cooling (Figs. 1 and 2). Threshold energy density for baryogenesis (nucleon formation) was 0.07 of maximum. In higher energy density initial states in the plasma and lepton-quark soup ranges, "explosive" centrifugal momentum leaves much lower particle and vacuum energy densities after cooling, which may be relevant to expanding universe questions.

Fig. 1: Vacuum Composition After Cooling to Zero Kelvin (Final Density)

Quantum Gravity Mechanisms

[Updated: November 19, 2020]
Abstract and Introduction
Analysis of energy quanta distributions among spatial objects called spots [1] [2] revealed two quantum-level phenomena relevant to gravitation: dispersion and concentration of energy quanta (Fig. 1). First, in a lower energy density range, spots with multiple energy quanta dispersed, or lost, energy which was distributed to spots with initial lower, even zero, energy content. Second, at higher energy density, spots concentrated energy more than expected by random distribution. In brief, quantum analysis of spatial distribution of energy (and/or mass) identified two mechanisms which disperse or concentrate energy probably relevant to gravitational phenomena. A third mechanism was the effect of surface temperature on gravitation reported previously [3] [4] [5] [6]. The present results further integrate gravitation and space-time-energy quantization in binary mechanics and support a multi-factor treatment of gravity-related phenomena.

Fig. 1: Spot Energy Distribution vs Energy Density

Particle States Evolution

[Updated: May 12, 2018]
Abstract and Introduction
The effect of the time-evolution bit operations on elementary particle states [1] was examined by comparing proportions of spot states for each particle (spot type) with expected proportions based on random distribution of 1-state bits. Results include: 1) reduced probabilities of absolute vacuum and 2) increased probabilities of selected spot states (M and L bit composition) for each particle type, replicating previous findings [2]. That is, the time-development bit operations alter system state (the bit function) by concentrating 1-state M and L bits in selections of specific spot states in each elementary particle (spot type). These data define 1) a specific role of the magnetic force (vector bit operation) in particle differentiation and 2) a possible operational definition of "magnetic monopoles".

Fig. 1: Expected and Observed Particle Probabilities, E = 0, 1, 2

Quantization Asymmetry

Quantization asymmetry has been defined as physical theories at the atomic and nuclear levels that quantize almost everything except space and time [1]. The continuous space-time assumption in classical and Standard Model (SM) physics and in General Relativity (GR) presently has no known justification other than tradition and superstition. Binary mechanics (BM) [2] may be seen as an instance of quantization asymmetry breaking, so to speak, since it implements quantization symmetry. In 2010, publication of the postulates of BM and some of their consequences began a transition in physics from quantization asymmetry to symmetry. This article outlines some major headlines in this developing story that has impact in virtually all sub-specialities in physics.

Fig. 1: What Death of a Theory Looks Like

LIGO Gravity Wave Mechanism

[Updated: Feb 16, 2026]
Abstract and Introduction
A gravitational wave [1] observed at LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) [2] may provide experimental confirmation of two major results of binary mechanics (BM) [3]: (1) objects tend to move toward regions of higher vacuum energy density [4] [5] [6] and (2) light speed in vacuum decreases at reduced vacuum energy density [7] [8]. This paper outlines how the BM model of gravitational effects and the land-mark light speed discovery may fully account for the LIGO gravitational wave data.

Table 1: LIGO Gravitational Wave Mechanism and Detection

Electron Gas Standing Waves

While testing a new batch mode version of the Binary Mechanics Lab Simulator (BMLS), remarkable standing waves of an electron gas in perfect vacuum were observed (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Standing Waves in Vacuum Electron Gas

GRACE: Gravity Surface Temperature Dependence

Abstract and Introduction
The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) consists of twin satellites launched in March 2002 to make "detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field which will lead to discoveries about gravity" [1]. This report presents two such discoveries which provide additional confirmation of the prediction that object surface temperature increases gravitational force [2] [3], originally discovered with lunar laser ranging and lunar orbit perigee data [4]. First, comparing 13 years (2003 - 2015) of GRACE ocean data subtracting the coldest month (January) from the warmest month (July) in the northern hemisphere, GRACE showed greater gravity in the northern hemisphere when warmer (Fig. 1, right) and decreased gravity in the southern hemisphere when cooler (Fig. 1, left). Second, the product-moment correlation of the average GRACE ocean gravity measurements and ocean surface temperature (SST) over the available latitude data range was 0.697, suggesting that about one half (49%) of GRACE gravity measures in fact reflect ocean surface temperature, as predicted.

Methods and Results

Fig. 1: GRACE Gravity (July minus January mean, sem) vs Latitude

Spot The Physics Theory

[Updated: Febuary 23, 2020]
Fun pop quiz. Spot the physics theory hidden in Tables 1 to 3.

Table 1: Physics Theory: Some First Principles

Polchinski's "New Normal" Physics

In the last 48 hours, physicist Joseph Polchinski -- noted for string theory work including two textbooks -- revealed what may be the "new normal" in science, namely, good questions and verifiable facts are to be deleted and banned. His behavior took me completely by surprise. As background, several years ago I wrote: "String theories may turn out to be one of the strongest factors favoring the acceptance of quantized space and time as postulated in [binary mechanics] BM, according to the 'when all else fails...' rule" [1]. Now noted string theorist Polchinski appears to reveal a sort of totalitarianism in physics today. In sum, at least one string theory practitioner may have significant anti-science issues.

Fig. 1: Keene's Initial Comment and Polchinski's Second Reply
Legend: Note four replies -- two from Keene and two from Polchinski.

If You Want to Keep Your Higgs Boson...

This note reports additional information regarding "If you like your Higgs boson, you can keep your Higgs boson" and other lost causes in the Standard Model (SM). With the quantization of space, time and energy in binary mechanics (BM) [1], infinitesimal time-development operators in conventional quantum mechanics (QM) were no longer mathematically applicable since only integer increments in spatial position and time were allowed. Thus, four binary bit operations were defined -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F), each occurring in a time tick t in a time-development cycle of duration T (4t). The unconditional bit operation corresponds to the momentum operator, leaving three fundamental forces defined by the scalar (electrostatic), vector (magnetic) and strong bit operations [2]. Only one bit operations order can be fully correct physics since each may affect the results obtained by others [3].

"...You can keep your Higgs boson." Fig. 1 shows force incidence as a function of bit density in a simulated 64x64x64 spot volume.

Fig. 1: Force Bit Operations Counts vs Bit Density

Legend: Counts for scalar (blue), vector (purple) and strong (yellow) bit operations from absolute vacuum (0 bit density) [4] to maximum bit density (1) for six permutations of bit operations order.

Light Speed Amendment

Updated: April 17, 2015
Abstract and Introduction
In this pilot study, the hypothesis that absolute vacuum, defined as zero bit (energy) density [1], is opaque to electromagnetic (EM, light) transmission posed in 2011 [2] was confirmed using simulated volumes with bit densities ranging from zero to 0.30 expressed as proportion of maximum possible density. At zero bit density, light speed c was zero. The first detectable light transmission was seen at 0.10 bit density. Light speed c increased with increased bit densities through partial vacuum levels. An essentially constant light velocity c was obtained only at higher bit densities at and above approximately 0.15, thereby limiting the energy density range over which light speed invariance postulated in Special Relativity occurs. Thus, the Special Relativity postulate of "light speed invariance in a vacuum" was correct only for higher vacuum (bit) density ranges. The postulates of binary mechanics (BM) [3] generated the present hypothesis and explain the underlying mechanisms for the reported results.

Methods and Results

Fig. 1: Delay in Arrival of Wave Front with Two Bit Operations Orders.

Fundamental Forces In Physics

This report (1) updates and discusses how the fundamental bit operations of binary mechanics (BM) [1] relate to conventional concepts of fundamental forces in physics (Table 1) and (2) adds a term to the equations for electromagnetic forces (scalar and vector bit operations) to further formalize their consistency with Special Relativity (Table 2). As a result, the three BM bit operations -- scalar, vector and strong -- are seen to depend on three similar binary values -- source 1-state bit, a potential, and destination 0-state bit.

Table 1: Fundamental forces: previous vs BM

Physics News: Gravity Game-Changer

Gravity has been viewed as a primary force by physicists for over a century. As the theory of binary mechanics (BM) [1] developed, the author assumed that gravitation would take its place among the primary forces which generally corresponded to four discrete bit operations -- unconditional, electromagnetic (scalar and vector) and strong, determining the time-development of a physical system. Hence, the initial assumption was that gravity would have its own bit operation to bring the total to five operators on BM states. However, simulation experiments produced gravity-like effects without postulation of any additional gravity-related bit operation, a result that strongly suggested that gravity was not a primary force at all.

Gravitation looses primary force status
In these experiments [2], the initial state consisted of two bodies (volumes with higher 1-state bit densities than surrounding space). Then the four postulated BM bit operations were applied repeatedly, while observing changes in the system. Acceleration of the two bodies toward each other was found and appeared to depend on a higher bit density between the two bodies than in other directions around the bodies. This conclusion was readily observed. Each body radiated 1-state bits to its lower density surroundings. Obviously, the space between the objects would develop a higher 1-state bit density than any other direction.

A Law of Motion

Several consequences of the postulates of binary mechanics (BM) [1] may be summarized in a basic physics law of motion, namely that objects tend to move in the direction of higher bit density. Fig. 1 illustrates this idea for one spatial dimension.

Fig. 1: A Law of Motion

This working hypothesis of a fundamental law of motion in physics is applicable for objects ranging from elementary particles to astronomical objects such as planets and entire galaxies. This note reviews some results and logic supporting this hypothesis.

Gravity Increased By Lunar Surface Temperature Differential

Abstract presented at April 13-16 APS meeting:
Bulletin of the American Physical Society 58(4) 186 (2013)

Abstract and Introduction
Quantitatively large effects of lunar surface temperature on apparent gravitational force measured by lunar laser ranging (LLR) and lunar perigee may challenge widely accepted theories of gravity. LLR data [1] grouped by days from full moon shows the moon is about 5 percent closer to earth at full moon compared to 8 days before or after full moon. In a second, related result, moon perigees were least distant in days closer to full moon. Moon phase was used as proxy independent variable for lunar surface temperature. These results support the prediction by binary mechanics (BM) [2] that gravitational force increases with object surface temperature [3].

Methods and Results
Fig. 1: Lunar Distance vs Days from Full Moon

Solved Physics Mysteries

Updated: June 26, 2011
Binary mechanics (BM) [1] is a theory of everything based on simple postulates in which the universe is implemented with a single fundamental object called the spot unit consisting of two binary bits. Based on position parities in BM space (Table 1 in [1]), these two bits determine, among other things, electric and color charges for leptons and quarks (the mite bit) and direction of bit motion (the lite bit) according to four fundamental bit operations which define exact time-development of BM states (1-state bit distributions).

An interesting Wikipedia article titled "List of Unsolved Problems in Physics" [2] provides an opportunity to take stock of the development of the theory of BM to date. Hence, this article will follow the general outline of the Wikipedia article with several objectives -- (1) provide hopefully helpful commentary for students of BM, (2) suggest where unsolved problems may be successfully addressed by the theory of BM and its software simulation technology [3], and (3) tabulate as solved those items where BM may have already adequately addressed, in whole or part, particular unsolved problems.

Physics Glossary

The theory of binary mechanics (BM) [1] quantizes space and time. As a result, many familiar physics principles and phenomena are explained at a new level of detail and redefined to some extent. Hence, a physics glossary may be a useful guide.

As a physical theory, or more specifically a theory of everything or grand unification, BM has no known competition by the key criterion of simplicity or parsimony [2]. The universe is proposed to consist of a single fundamental object called the spot unit which consists of two binary bits -- mite and lite. The spot unit must contain mechanisms including to set its bit states to one or zero according to the fundamental bit operations of BM and to attach to other spot units to form spots (3 spot units) and spot cubes (8 spots), which in turn form a cubic spatial lattice [3].