How to Derive the Primary and Secondary Physical Constants

[Updated: Aug. 24, 2025]
Abstract
A frequently asked question is, "How did binary mechanics (BM) derive the primary and secondary physical constants?" A true derivation of a "fundamental constant" value is based on first principles alone, without any use of other fundamental constants, which are really unexplained measurements. First, measured values of the so-called fundamental constants were reverse engineered to obtain values for the BM primary constants based on full quantization of energy, space and time, expressed in kg, meters and seconds respectively, which map directly to the SI units of measurement used in science. Second, the primary constant values, dubbed the Keene scale, were used to calculate the measured values of the previously unexplained secondary or "fundamental" constants.

Fig. 1: Physical Constant Derivation Highlights

Law of Motion Based on Mechanism of Motion

Abstract
The three-quanta threshold for particle formation [1] and the mechanism of particle motion [2] are reviewed showing how these discoveries provided a basis for a new law of motion in physics [3].

Road to the Law of Motion
In 1994, the "Binary Mechanics" paper presented full quantization of energy, space and time, with equations for system state and its time development, without input from, or use of, any "unexplained measurements", wrongly known as "fundamental constants". "Binary Mechanics" (BM) was published in JBinMech in 2010 [4].
Fig. 1: Electron Cycle

Motion Law: Gravitation Edition

Abstract and Introduction
As a consequence of binary mechanics (BM) fundamentals [1], a motion law states that objects tend to move in the direction of higher vacuum energy density [2]. As background, topics discussed include particles as compositions of multiple quanta, the mechanism of particle movement as a flux of individual quanta [3], the most likely motion direction and the equivalence of the gravitational field within a solid object and a quanta density gradient in its perfect vacuum component [4]. Predictions from this model have been confirmed by experimental results of Alex L Dmitriev et al, reporting weight decease with a (1) heated brass rod, (2) heating a piezo ceramic pile, (3) laser injection in optical fibers and (4) in gyros proportional to spin frequency and with horizontal more than vertical spin axis. The role of temperature in gravity-like effects has now been studied in two broad categories: distant objects not in direct contact and the special case of a weighed object resting on a scale.

Fig. 1: Motion Law At Single Particle Level

GRACE: Gravity Surface Temperature Dependence

Abstract and Introduction
The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) consists of twin satellites launched in March 2002 to make "detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field which will lead to discoveries about gravity" [1]. This report presents two such discoveries which provide additional confirmation of the prediction that object surface temperature increases gravitational force [2] [3], originally discovered with lunar laser ranging and lunar orbit perigee data [4]. First, comparing 13 years (2003 - 2015) of GRACE ocean data subtracting the coldest month (January) from the warmest month (July) in the northern hemisphere, GRACE showed greater gravity in the northern hemisphere when warmer (Fig. 1, right) and decreased gravity in the southern hemisphere when cooler (Fig. 1, left). Second, the product-moment correlation of the average GRACE ocean gravity measurements and ocean surface temperature (SST) over the available latitude data range was 0.697, suggesting that about one half (49%) of GRACE gravity measures in fact reflect ocean surface temperature, as predicted.

Methods and Results

Fig. 1: GRACE Gravity (July minus January mean, sem) vs Latitude

Standard Model Particle Composition

Abstract and Introduction
Binary mechanics (BM) defined 8 elementary particles based only on three binary digits, namely modulo 2 parity (0 or 1) of each position coordinate in 3 quantized spatial dimensions (Table 1 in [1]). These parities defined 8 adjacent location types, named spots [2], based on a pair of relativistic Dirac spinor equations of opposite handedness. Each spot was associated with one of these 8 elementary particles (Tables 1 to 3; Table 3 updated in [1]). A spot was composed of 3 smaller spatial objects, named spot units. In 2014, the 8 BM fundamental particles were found to be not as elementary as previously thought, but rather were themselves composed of only 4 types of spot units [3]. This article itemizes how 62 Standard Model (SM) "elementary" quarks and leptons may be built from the 8 original BM particles. In sum, 62 Standard Model quark and lepton particles may be entirely composed of only 4 types of spot unit, the most elemental objects known in physics [3].

Methods and Results
Table 1: Generation 1: Zero-d Leptons and ONE-d Quarks

Legend: L, left; R, right. r, red; g, green; b; blue. Neutrinos and anti-neutrinos by Majorana concept.

Faster Than Light

Binary mechanics (BM) [1] predicts that faster-than-light motion of 1-state bits occurs over specific distances under particular conditions defined by four time-development bit operations [2] -- unconditional (U), scalar (S), vector (V) and strong (F) [3] [4].

1-State Fermion Mite Bit Velocities
Distance d = 1. Bit velocity v = d/t where d and t are the fundamental quantized length and time constants [5]. Distance d is presently thought to be approximately 0.6 fm. Time interval t was calculated based on the speculation that so-called "light speed in vacuum" c = v/π (eq. 2 in [5]), approximately 6.34922E-25 seconds in the BM frame. In one time tick t of the unconditional bit operation, all 1-state bits (fermion mites and boson lites) and 0-state bits (1-bit neutrinos) move exactly one distance unit d at bit velocity v. With four bit operations each thought to have duration t, the average unconditional bit velocity over one cycle of bit operations application is v/4. It may be convenient to express these velocities in bit velocity units where light speed is 1/π and average velocity over 4 ticks t due to the unconditional bit operation is 1/4, less than purported light speed.

Fig. 1: Faster-Than-Light 1-State Fermion Mite Bit Motion

Legend: States of spatial objects named spot units over successive ticks (top to bottom). Each spot unit contains two bit loci named mite (circles) and lite (arrows) with 0 (blue) or 1 (black) allowed states. The last row adds view of a bit locus in an adjacent perpendicular spot unit. Strong bit operation direction (purple arrow).

Light Speed at Zero Kelvin

Abstract and Introduction
Light velocity at zero degrees Kelvin was examined. Major results of previous reports were replicated [1] [2]. First, light speed was zero at low vacuum energy (1-state bit) densities. That is, the hypothesis that the lowest vacuum densities are opaque to light transmission [3] was confirmed with improved measurement methods. Second, light speed decreased from its maximum velocity as energy density decreased. Third, light velocity was approximately equal to 1/π in bit velocity units [4], where bit velocity is d/t and d and t are the quantized fundamental length and time constants respectively. These results (1) change the status of Einstein's Special Relativity statement of constant light speed c in a vacuum independent of signal source velocity from postulate to known mechanism and (2) limit the vacuum density range in which light speed c may, in fact, be constant [1] and (3) highlight issues in light speed measurement methods.

Methods and Results
Fig. 1: Light Speed at Zero Kelvin vs Energy Density

Legend: Bit density: energy (1-state bit) density as proportion of maximum possible energy density. Light speed expressed in bit velocity units.

Expanding Universe Questions

The discovery that light speed in vacuum c is not constant over the entire vacuum energy range may raise significant questions about expanding universe concepts. A recent study reported evidence that light speed c begins to decrease at lower vacuum energy densities and that volumes at zero vacuum energy density, named absolute vacuum, were in fact completely opaque to electromagnetic (EM) wave transmission (Fig. 1 from [1]).
Fig. 1: Light Speed vs Media Density and Bit Operations Order

These findings raise the possibility that observed redshifts may not be due to an expanding universe, but rather to regions of lower vacuum density where light speed is decreased producing the exact same observed redshifts. This possiblity may raise serious questions about the veracity of the expanding universe theory in astrophysics. Indeed, the question of whether the universe is expanding, contracting or neither may be back on the table again.

Light Speed Amendment

Updated: April 17, 2015
Abstract and Introduction
In this pilot study, the hypothesis that absolute vacuum, defined as zero bit (energy) density [1], is opaque to electromagnetic (EM, light) transmission posed in 2011 [2] was confirmed using simulated volumes with bit densities ranging from zero to 0.30 expressed as proportion of maximum possible density. At zero bit density, light speed c was zero. The first detectable light transmission was seen at 0.10 bit density. Light speed c increased with increased bit densities through partial vacuum levels. An essentially constant light velocity c was obtained only at higher bit densities at and above approximately 0.15, thereby limiting the energy density range over which light speed invariance postulated in Special Relativity occurs. Thus, the Special Relativity postulate of "light speed invariance in a vacuum" was correct only for higher vacuum (bit) density ranges. The postulates of binary mechanics (BM) [3] generated the present hypothesis and explain the underlying mechanisms for the reported results.

Methods and Results

Fig. 1: Delay in Arrival of Wave Front with Two Bit Operations Orders.

Non-Zero Proton Electric Dipole Moment

Proton electric dipole moment (EDM) d_p equals 8.534265E-32 ecm, calculated from positions of charged 1-state bits in the central baryon bit cycle [1] model of the proton [2] (Fig. 1), elementary charge e and the estimated fundamental length d [3] based on binary mechanics (BM) postulates [4] and nucleon scattering data [5]. This d_p is deemed to be accurate to at least 7 digits based on (1) the CODATA accuracy for elementary charge e, (2) the integer position coordinates are exact, (3) the assumption that the charges are centered on the coordinate grid shown and (4) only one 1-state bit circulating in the central baryon bit cycle. The BM prediction of zero electron EDM has been confirmed by observations conducted by two independent labs deemed to be reliable [6]. The present non-zero proton EDM result is consistent with all experimental measurements to date [7] and is discussed regarding P and T symmetry issues.

Fig. 1: Electric Charge Positions in Central Baryon Bit Cycle

Legend: Centers (0 - 4) of bit loci (approx. 0.6 fm cubes of quantized space) viewed from the XY plane and rotated 90 degrees, the YZ plane, showing charge densities -- positive: red (2), light red and orange (1) and negative: yellow (2), light yellow and orange (1).

Non-Spherical Proton Shape

Binary mechanics (BM) has predicted a non-spherical proton shape, supported by accumulating experimental data and quantum chromodynamic (QCD) modeling. This paper further documents the non-spherical shape of the proton, highlighting clear advantages of BM over QCD. Based on a pair of relativistic Dirac spinor equations of opposite handedness, quantization of space, time and energy was proposed in a 1994 paper presenting BM [1]. As a result, quantum mechanical (QM) formalism evolved into (1) the bit function replacing the wave function for an irreducible representation of the state of any physical system and (2) four fundamental bit operations replacing infinitesimal operators for system time evolution [2]. With time quantization in discrete tick t units, Planck's constant h for an action quanta could then be parsed to define energy quanta as 1-state binary bits independent of time or frequency considerations. Another consequence of BM postulates was discovery of a cyclical circulation of 1-state bits in a quantized spatial structure named a spot cube (Fig. 3A in [1]). With a physical interpretation of BM space [3] and simulation software [4], this 1-state bit circulation was further described as an 84 tick central baryon bit cycle, detailing the physical basis for quark confinement [5].

Fig. 1: 1-State Bit Density in Central Baryon Bit Cycle
Legend: Centers (0 - 4) of bit loci (approx. 0.6 fm cubes of quantized space) with densities of 1 (light grey), 2 (grey) and 4 (black) 1-state bits viewed from the XY plane and rotated 90 degrees, the YZ plane.

Intrinsic Electron Spin and Fundamental Constants

[Updated: Apr 12, 2018]
For the first time, the empirically measured value of Planck's constant h is calculated from first principles of a physical theory to the full precision allowed by CODATA values. Using the postulates of binary mechanics (BM) where both space and time are quantized [1], this report describes the key steps in this calculation and proposes values for the fundamental length d and time t constants.
(1) Bit velocity v was defined as greater than the speed of light in a vacuum c consistent with the BM constraint that v > c [2].
(2) A physical interpretation of BM space [3] suggested a proposed value for the fundamental BM length constant d as approximately 0.67 fm.
(3) d/v = t' = approximately 7.14E-25 s, the fundamental time constant in BM space-time.
(4) The fine structure constant α maps this quantized time unit t' from BM space to observational space with t = αt' = approximately 5.2124E-27 s.
(5) Intrinsic electron spin and hence the Planck constant h was calculated using only electron rest mass m_e and the proposed length d and time t constants.
(6) In addition to steps (3) and (4) above, another method was used to calculate quantized time t based only on m_e, h and quantized length d.
(7) Finally, eq. 9 calculates Planck constant h directly from the independently determined length constant d (step 2 above) and familiar physical constants.

Fundamental Forces In Physics

This report (1) updates and discusses how the fundamental bit operations of binary mechanics (BM) [1] relate to conventional concepts of fundamental forces in physics (Table 1) and (2) adds a term to the equations for electromagnetic forces (scalar and vector bit operations) to further formalize their consistency with Special Relativity (Table 2). As a result, the three BM bit operations -- scalar, vector and strong -- are seen to depend on three similar binary values -- source 1-state bit, a potential, and destination 0-state bit.

Table 1: Fundamental forces: previous vs BM

Physics News: Gravity Game-Changer

Gravity has been viewed as a primary force by physicists for over a century. As the theory of binary mechanics (BM) [1] developed, the author assumed that gravitation would take its place among the primary forces which generally corresponded to four discrete bit operations -- unconditional, electromagnetic (scalar and vector) and strong, determining the time-development of a physical system. Hence, the initial assumption was that gravity would have its own bit operation to bring the total to five operators on BM states. However, simulation experiments produced gravity-like effects without postulation of any additional gravity-related bit operation, a result that strongly suggested that gravity was not a primary force at all.

Gravitation looses primary force status
In these experiments [2], the initial state consisted of two bodies (volumes with higher 1-state bit densities than surrounding space). Then the four postulated BM bit operations were applied repeatedly, while observing changes in the system. Acceleration of the two bodies toward each other was found and appeared to depend on a higher bit density between the two bodies than in other directions around the bodies. This conclusion was readily observed. Each body radiated 1-state bits to its lower density surroundings. Obviously, the space between the objects would develop a higher 1-state bit density than any other direction.

Physics News: Faster Than Light

The physics world has been aroused from a long intellectual slumber by the report from CERN investigators that some muon neutrinos may travel faster than the speed of light [1], possibly violating an essential premise of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity. Confirmation and hopefully replication of this result would lend support for the long-standing prediction of binary mechanics (BM) [2] that absolute maximum velocity at the single bit level is substantially greater than the observed speed of light (e.g., [3] [4] [5]). Consequences of this BM prediction might result in a number of situations in which apparent faster-than-light motion could be observable.

Physics News: Electron Shape

Physics News will be a new feature of this informal journal of binary mechanics (BM) [1] highlighting research supporting predictions of the theory. This installment considers the BM prediction that the electric dipole moment (EDM) of the electron is exactly zero. A recent report by Hudson et. al. in Nature on "Improved measurement of the shape of the electron" [2] states: "This result, consistent with zero, indicates that the electron is spherical at this improved level of precision." In an email exchange with one of the six co-authors of this paper, I wrote:

In binary mechanics (e.g., "Physical interpretation of binary mechanical space" ... [3]), which postulates an internal structure for the electron, the constituent bits (called mites) "spin" in a plane orthogonal to the spin axis, where each of three possible equally-spaced mite bit loci is equidistant from the particle's center of mass and symmetrically located around the spin axis.

sciencedaily.com reporting on your Nature letter states (AFAIK, their words, not yours): "If the electrons were not perfectly round then, like an unbalanced spinning-top, their motion would exhibit a distinctive wobble, distorting the overall shape of the molecule. The researchers saw no sign of such a wobble."

Gravity Increased By Lunar Surface Temperature Differential

Abstract presented at April 13-16 APS meeting:
Bulletin of the American Physical Society 58(4) 186 (2013)

Abstract and Introduction
Quantitatively large effects of lunar surface temperature on apparent gravitational force measured by lunar laser ranging (LLR) and lunar perigee may challenge widely accepted theories of gravity. LLR data [1] grouped by days from full moon shows the moon is about 5 percent closer to earth at full moon compared to 8 days before or after full moon. In a second, related result, moon perigees were least distant in days closer to full moon. Moon phase was used as proxy independent variable for lunar surface temperature. These results support the prediction by binary mechanics (BM) [2] that gravitational force increases with object surface temperature [3].

Methods and Results
Fig. 1: Lunar Distance vs Days from Full Moon

Solved Physics Mysteries

Updated: June 26, 2011
Binary mechanics (BM) [1] is a theory of everything based on simple postulates in which the universe is implemented with a single fundamental object called the spot unit consisting of two binary bits. Based on position parities in BM space (Table 1 in [1]), these two bits determine, among other things, electric and color charges for leptons and quarks (the mite bit) and direction of bit motion (the lite bit) according to four fundamental bit operations which define exact time-development of BM states (1-state bit distributions).

An interesting Wikipedia article titled "List of Unsolved Problems in Physics" [2] provides an opportunity to take stock of the development of the theory of BM to date. Hence, this article will follow the general outline of the Wikipedia article with several objectives -- (1) provide hopefully helpful commentary for students of BM, (2) suggest where unsolved problems may be successfully addressed by the theory of BM and its software simulation technology [3], and (3) tabulate as solved those items where BM may have already adequately addressed, in whole or part, particular unsolved problems.

Quantized Electromagnetism

The quantization of space and time in binary mechanics (BM) [1] may explain mechanisms underlying laws of electromagnetism (EM) [2] and raise new issues. A key criterion for a physics theory explaining phenomena at a more microscopic level such as BM, is that its laws converge on well-established physics laws at more macroscopic levels. For example, quantum electrodynamics reduce to Maxwell's equations at more macroscopic levels; Special Relativity (SR) reduces to Newtonian mechanics at low observer frame velocities compared to the speed of light in vacuum. To what extent is this true for the postulates and laws of BM? Does BM raise new issues or imply predictions of new EM phenomena?

Fig. 1: Surface View of Two Adjacent Spot Cubes

Legend: Each color-coded spot is a 2x2x2 cube of bits. A spot cube contains 8 spots, 4 of which are partially visible in this view. Electron spots (e-L; white) and right (R) and left (L) d quark (d) spots (r, red; g, green; b, blue). Mites (circles) and lites (arrows and stars). Stars are lites moving toward the viewer. Purple arrows indicate the direction of the three inter-dimensional strong bit operations within a spot, one of which is visible in each spot in this view.

Physics Glossary

The theory of binary mechanics (BM) [1] quantizes space and time. As a result, many familiar physics principles and phenomena are explained at a new level of detail and redefined to some extent. Hence, a physics glossary may be a useful guide.

As a physical theory, or more specifically a theory of everything or grand unification, BM has no known competition by the key criterion of simplicity or parsimony [2]. The universe is proposed to consist of a single fundamental object called the spot unit which consists of two binary bits -- mite and lite. The spot unit must contain mechanisms including to set its bit states to one or zero according to the fundamental bit operations of BM and to attach to other spot units to form spots (3 spot units) and spot cubes (8 spots), which in turn form a cubic spatial lattice [3].