Law of Motion Based on Mechanism of Motion

Abstract
The three-quanta threshold for particle formation [1] and the mechanism of particle motion [2] are reviewed showing how these discoveries provided a basis for a new law of motion in physics [3].

Road to the Law of Motion
In 1994, the "Binary Mechanics" paper presented full quantization of energy, space and time, with equations for system state and its time development, without input from, or use of, any "unexplained measurements", wrongly known as "fundamental constants". "Binary Mechanics" (BM) was published in JBinMech in 2010 [4].
Fig. 1: Electron Cycle

In 2011, the electron and proton bit cycles (Figs. 1 and 2) [5] [6] were discovered using BM simulation software [7]. If a simulation initial condition had only one quanta defined as a 1-state, after repeated application of the time development laws, the quanta was observed to return to its initial position. Thus, particle spin appeared to be a physical reality.

In the electron bit cycle (Fig. 1), six quanta loci are shown: M-type energy (circles) and L-type energy (arrows). If a locus contains a 1-state quanta, it will move through the three spot units, X to Y, Y to Z and Z to X, in a cycle forever if not disturbed (purple circle). The grey dot in the middle is the axis of rotation (perpendicular to the cycle and page plane).

While others imagine a spherically shaped electron, the picture in BM is more like a spinning top shape [8]. This analysis provides an actual physical model of what antiquated, conventional quantum mechanics says is just something that we imagine and when they talk about the one-half spin of the electron, they opine, "We just imagine that, it really doesn't happen in real life or in physical form". BM asserts, "Yes, it does happen".

Fig. 2: Proton Cycle

Consistent with scattering data, the proton cycle has a non-spherical shape [9]. Specifically, three sets of four quanta loci are located outside the base spot cube of the cycle in adjacent spot cubes: above, to the lower left and to the lower right, in the perspective shown (Fig. 2). The proton cycle has 42 loci which could be in either the 1-state or 0-state (neutrino component). Thus, a proton cycle has 2⁴² possible states, spanning the variation and complexity in the whole family of hadron particles [10].

Temperature of a simulated volume decreases as quanta repesenting electromagnetic and particle kinetic energy exit it. Eventually, no quanta exit the volume, leaving those representing particles and perfect vacuum energy content at 0 Kelvin [11]. Cyclical quanta motion continues, but the quanta remain "captured" in their bit cycles and particle motion was found to be zero. That is, no quanta exit a bit cycle and enter another. This result revealed the mechanism of particle motion is quanta motion between bit cycles.

Description of the mechanism of particle motion is a highlight of BM. Other approaches, such as Newtonian mechanics and the Standard Model, seem content to describe motion (velocity, acceleration, etc) without addressing the question of how things move.

Fig. 3: Eight Elementary Particles Confirm Spot Cube Prediction

Meanwhile, proprietary BM technology, called bit function analysis [12], showed that each of the predicted eight BM elementary particles [13] are composed of three quanta (Fig. 3, green highlights) [14]. The MLMLML column lists the possible configurations in a spot of three energy quanta (1-states). The Random column shows the expected probability of each row if the quanta were randomly distributed in the simulated volume. However, the red, green and blue matter (drR, dgR, dbR) and anti-matter (drL, dgL, dbL) d down quarks occur some 20x more often than expected by chance alone.

In other words, starting with an initial random distribution of energy quanta in the simulated volume, the BM time-development equations [13] "organize" the quanta into elementary particles. Perhaps even more amazing, these particles persist after cooling to 0 Kelvin (Fig. 3). An observer might say, "These are stunning results".

This three-quanta threshold for particle formation plays a key role in the motion law.
Fig. 4: Particle Motion in Density Gradient

Thus, for a particle to appear at its location, called a spot, 1 to 3 quanta would have to enter that location (Fig. 4, yellow). Higher density spots with 2 quanta are more likely to form particles since only 1 more quanta is required (Fig. 4, lower), compared to those with fewer quanta (Fig. 4, upper).

The law of motion is based on the three-quanta threshold for particle formation and the mechanism of motion.

Fig. 5: Particle Motion Mechanism

Fig. 5 previews the motion mechanism. In this quark-mediated electron motion example, the arrow shows a quanta leaving an electron spot (yellow) and arriving at a corresponding position in another electron spot in four steps of length L, where L is the BM quantized primary length constant.

Proton (Hadron) Bit Cycle
The proton and electron bit cycles represent a physical basis for the concept of particle spin, indicating that angular momentum is an intrinsic property of the spot and spot cube model of "structured space".

The fabled "sea of virtual particles" may now be understood as cycles containing fewer quanta than demonstrated thresholds required for observable particles.

The proton bit cycle exhibits known hadron properties: (1) non-spherical proton shape, (2) color confinement because quanta tend to remain in their base spot cube cycle if not disturbed and (3) 2⁴² possible states based on the 42 quanta loci in the cycle.

The proton and electron cycles share the same spin axis -- the solid diagonal of the spot cube between the electron and positron spots.

The proton and electron quanta cycles exhibit opposite spin directions. This finding no doubt has important consequences.

Fig. 6: Strong Bit Operation

Fig. 6 illustrates the strong bit operation in BM time-development equations. At t = 0, a 1-state quanta (black arrow) in the X-dimension spot unit moves to the Y-dimension spot unit (black circle) at t = 1. If both loci in the source X-dimension spot unit contain 1-states at t = 0, the strong operation is blocked; that is, no X-to-Y quanta transfer occurs at t = 1 (Fig. 6, lower). Hence, in the next unconditional bit operation, the L-type quanta (black arrow) is shifted out of the electron spot into a matter d quark spot (red). This kind of sequence is the basis for all particle motion.

In sum, there are two alternatives: quanta may continue cycling in an electron or proton cycle (Fig. 5) or when the strong operation is blocked, shift into another cycle. Any exit from an electron cycle is an entrace into a proton cycle. Quanta in a proton cycle may exit to an electron cycle or to another proton cycle in an adjacent spot cube.

It may be helpful to think of quanta entrance into a cycle as "absorption" and quanta exit from a cycle as "emission". However, these are just words. What matters in BM is the equations [13]. Why? To write a simulation program, it must be known exactly what can and cannot happen. There is no place to say, "This may or not happen. Quanta position might be here or there. An event might occur a bit sooner or later" and so forth, as one might hear in an outdated quanta mechanics workshop. Further, a more important point may be that BM equations are required to build a universe, which also requires more than uncertainties and probabilities.

Fig. 7: Law of Motion Force Equation

New Law of Motion
All else equal, objects move toward higher energy density (Fig. 7) [3]. Let displacement dx in meters represent a motion. Let density D = kg / meters³. If quanta density D₁ on the left side of an object is greater than the density D₂ on the right side, a non-zero density gradient exists equal to (D₁ - D₂) / d, where d is the diameter or size of the object.

The motion law applies at all scales. The object may be a single proton, a planet, a star, a whole galaxy, etc.

The law of motion may be expressed in units of a Newtonian force considering a single BM quanta (1-state) passing through an area a (Fig. 7, lower).

Fig. 8: Motion Law in Gravity

Fig. 8 shows application of the law of motion in the context of object weight measurment.

References
[1] Keene, J. J. "Zero Kelvin particle states" JBinMech May, 2018.
[2] Keene, J. J. "Particle flux and motion" JBinMech May, 2018.
[3] Keene, J. J. "A law of motion" JBinMech September, 2011.
[4] Keene, J. J. "Binary mechanics" JBinMech July, 2010.
[5] Keene, J. J. "The central baryon bit cycle" JBinMech March, 2011.
[6] Keene, J. J. "Proton and electron bit cycles" JBinMech April, 2015.
[7] Keene, J. J. "BML simulator interface" JBinMech March, 2016.
[8] Keene, J. J. "Physics news: electron shape" JBinMech September, 2011.
[9] Keene, J. J. "Non-spherical proton shape" JBinMech February, 2015.
[10] Keene, J. J. "Proton structure 3D animation" JBinMech May, 2020.
[11] Keene, J. J. "Vacuum composition" JBinMech December, 2019.
[12] Keene, J. J. "Bit function analysis" JBinMech April, 2018.
[13] Keene, J. J. "Binary mechanics postulates" JBinMech November, 2020.
[14] Keene, J. J. "Zero Kelvin particle composition" JBinMech February, 2019.

© 2025 James J Keene