Binary Mechanics Cosmology

Introduction
The objective is to create the universe from the equations of a "theory of everything" known as binary mechanics (BM) [1]. BM equations and results from the Binary Mechanics Lab Simulator software, which implements those equations, will be used to create a fully functional universe. The premise is that the most complete and comprehensive physical model is the essential starting point for a viable cosmology. After brief background, the best cosmological model is built step by step, based on this video.

Background
BM was developed from antiquated 20th-century quantum mechanics [2] by adding the postulates of full quantization of energy, space and time. Results from the old quantum mechanics could only give a probability for a physical event obtained from a complex number, called the "amplitude", shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Space as Spot Cube Lattice

Parts of this complex amplitude can be parsed to quantize energy by limiting the absolute value of x and the absolute value of y to zero or one to get BM eqs. 1: M = 0, 1 and L = 0, 1. When M or L equal 1, the bit locus is in a 1-state, called a "quanta of energy". Hence, there are two kinds of energy, designated M and L with length quantized in the itallic L forming a spatial object called the spot unit. L is the primary length constant [3] and is approximately 0.67 femtometers. Three spot units may be combined in 3D space to form a spot. There are eight permutations of the parts of the complex amplitude shown in the upper left which define a spot cube which predicts eight elementary particles: three down or d quarks, the electron and their anti-particles. Finally, space contains a lattice of these spot cubes.

With that short introduction, we're ready to create a universe.

Place to Put Things
Step one in building the universe is that we need a place to put things. That place is the spot unit. The things are 1-states, called quanta. Let us agree that the universe consists of things at locations. At present, BM allows people to think what they want concerning what the things actually are. BM just asserts that each of the two loci in the spot unit may be in the 1-state (or 0-state).

The Spot Unit Machine
The spot unit is more than a volume to put things. What things do we have? We have the L and M type quanta which represent units of energy. In addition, the spot unit must contain parts needed to implement the time evolution laws including bit operations in BM eqs. 7-17 [4]. Fig. 2 shows four configurations of these hypothetical parts for leptons (top) and d quarks (bottom) and for matter (left) and antimatter (right). For example, e-L is left-handed electron and e+R is right-handed positron.

Fig. 2: Spot Unit Components

These parts might include guides, valves and sensors. Guides are barriers that prevent motion of quanta through a spot unit wall. Valves allow passage of quanta in only one direction. Sensors determine the state of neighboring loci. For example, 1-states in those loci represent potentials for the scaler (electrostatic) and the vector (magnetic) bit operations in the time evolution laws.

The eight elementary particles in the spot cube consist of four types of variation of these parts in their spot units.

Angular Momentum in Electron and Proton Bit Cycles
The fundamental basis for observed angular momentum in the universe was provided by the 2011 discovery of intrinsic angular momentum in the proton and electron bit cycles [5].

Fig. 3: Electron and Proton Bit Cycles

The electron bit cycle is shown by the purple circle in Fig. 3, where a 1-state quanta in the electron spot may revolve around the three spot units and return to its initial position. This sequence of events is the intrinsic angular momentum of the electron. The gray dot in Fig. 3 is the axis of rotation. Thus, the electron may be seen as a spinning top shape.

The proton bit cycle is shown in Fig. 3 by the black circle in this simplified version. The electron and proton bit cycles both share the same rotation axis -- the solid diagonal between the electron and positron spots in the spot cube. The electron and proton bit cycles exhibit rotation in opposite directions.

The electron and proton bit cycles were important discoveries to better understand the origin of angular momentum.

Mechanism of All Particle Motion
A previous detailed account of motion mechanisms [6] provides frame by frame steps involved in all particle motion to build our universe.

Knowledge of how particles move is required. Prior to BM, theories such as Newton's motion laws were satisfied to describe motion, leaving the mechanism of particle motion for another day. Biologists seem to have more curiosity than many physicists. Biologists were not content to describe the velocity or acceleration of a cockroach on a table. They wanted to discover and know the contractile protiens causing a roach leg to move, the energy source in the ATP molecule, the neural networks coordinating muscle contractions.

In physics, the BM description of the mechanism of particle motion is not just a bonus perk. It is essential part of the story of how the universe works.

Complexity and Variability
To make our universe interesting, a lot of complexity and variability is needed. There are six quanta locations in the electron spot and each locus could be in a 1- or 0-state. Thus, there are 2⁶ possibilities, which is 64 different configurations of the electron. That gives us a little bit of complexity and variability, without even considering the configurations of spots near the electron in the spot cube lattice.

Fig. 5: The Proton (Hadron) Bit Cycle

The proton bit cycle has 2⁴² different states, forming the hadron group of particles. Fig. 5 shows a more detailed "pro version" of the proton bit cycle. There are 42 locations shown in more or less the same angle of the schematic spot cube in Fig. 1, where the dark red d quark is in the upper left, the dark blue in the upper right and the dark green at the bottom. Notice that there are three areas -- one to the lower left, one at the top and one at the lower right -- which each contain four quanta locations which are outside the main or "home" spot cube of the proton bit cycle. This allows energy in the proton bit cycle to venture into neighboring spot cubes which is an important factor in nucleogenesis.

Keene Motion Law
With knowledge of how things move -- the particle motion mechanism [6], a new law of motion can be added to how the universe works, namely objects move toward higher energy density.

Fig. 6: Keene Motion Law

Let dx denote a displacement or motion (Fig. 6). There may be a higher energy density region with a greater percent of loci in the 1-state (D₁) or a lower density volume with fewer 1-state quanta (D₂) separated by an object of diameter or size d. Thus, the energy density gradient or vector may be expressed as (D₁-D₂)/d.

This motion law may apply at all scales. The object could be a single proton or a whole planet, a whole galaxy or group of galaxies. The motion law may be expressed as a force with displacement dx of one quanta through an area a times the density gradient (Fig. 6, lower).

Planet distance from the sun is mostly determined by two factors. First, radiation pressure from the sun pushes a planet away from the sun. Second, the Keene motion law moves a planet toward the sun since the planet energy density vector (D₁-D₂)/d points toward the sun.

Matter Aggregation
The motion law acts to aggregate quanta into spatially separated objects. This aggregation effect occurs at all scales from single electrons, protons, atoms, and molecules to solar systems and galaxies.

Fig. 7: Matter Aggregated by Motion Law

Fig. 7 illustrates this idea showing two spatial dimensions (close-far and right-left) and mountain height represents quanta density. The red arrows show quanta aggregation direction. The two red arrows in the upper-right of Fig. 7 show quanta moving by the motion law toward areas of higher energy density. This motion toward two different peaks leaves a volume of lower density between the peaks. This effect results in a grouping of galaxies and vast regions populated with fewer galaxies.

The action of the motion law leads to a potential problem. Eventually everything in the universe would come together into one giant mass of energy. This problem is solved or offset by mechanisms which disperse concentrated energy.

Jets and Explosions
Extreme energy aggregation due to the motion law may result in massive jets of quanta from central galaxy volumes and explosions such as supernovas in volumes with near maximum energy density.

Results from BM simulation software confirm the energy dispersion role of explosions [7]. In Fig. 8, initial quanta density for a simulation may start with very few quanta on the left or a high quanta density up to maximum energy density on the right. When the simulator runs in vacuum mode, all the quanta that leave the simulated volume are lost to the simulation. They are just gone. These quanta represent electromagnetic radiation and kinetic energy of particles in the simulated volume. The temperature of the simulated volume is reduced to 0 Kelvin. How do we know that? For a period of time running the simulator, no further quanta exit the simulated volume. When there is nothing left to exit, what remains is at 0 Kelvin in the absolute reference frame provided by the simulator.

Fig. 8: Final Density After Cooling Depends on Initial Density

Fig. 8 shows the final density including both particles and so-called perfect vacuum, defined as absence of ions, atoms or molecules. Without these particles, this study showed that vacuum is not empty. It is teaming with quanta. In fact, most of the energy in the simulation at 0 Kelvin is not particles but is 1-states (quanta) circling in bit cycles for the proton and the electron, but below the threshold for particle formation. That threshold is three quanta per elementary particle spot, in order to have a particle detectable by our instruments.

Consider the result when the initial density was maximum (1.0 in Fig. 8, right). When cooled down, the final density is very low, below the the proton threshold. This indicates a massive explosion ocurred. In cosmology, this result may represent supernovas which may produce vast low density volumes.

Cosmic Voids
Volumes with very low energy density are opaque to light transmission, as previously predicted [8] and demonstrated [9]. Why would this happen? Any incoming quanta to these low density volumes would be captured in electron and proton bit cycles before any of that energy can make its way through that volume to be seen or detected on the other side. That was a unique prediction of BM.

In sum, there is a balance between the energy aggregation due to the motion law and various explosions or massive jets of quanta from highly energy dense volumes, such as near galactic centers.

We're well on the way to making a pretty good universe.

Energy Density Thresholds
Elementary particle formation requires a minimum threshold energy density.

Fig. 9: Proton Count After Cooling Depends on Initial Density

Fig. 9 plots the proton count after cooling as a function of initial density in the experiment shown in Fig. 8. With the explosions that occur at very high energy densities, the number of protons resulting in the volume when it finally cools down are few compared to lower initial energy densities.

Elementary Particle Formation
The time development laws in BM eqs. 7-17 result in creation of eight elementary particles. By creation, we mean that the random distribution of quanta with which we can seed a simulated volume to begin a simulation, is organized by action of the BM equations such that after cooling the 1-states aggregate to form eight elementary particles, as predicted (Table 1 in [10] and [1]). The vacuum mode producing cooling was used to observe ground-state particle composition [11].

Fig. 10: Quanta Aggregate Forming Eight Elementary Particles

Fig. 10 represents the states (1 or 0) of the three spot units in a spot, namely the M and L loci in each of three spot units. Each row is a different pattern where the total energy of the spot is 3 meaning that there are 3 1-states.

The initially randomly-seeded quanta are organized by the equations of BM into three left-handed d quarks, red (drL), green (dgL) and blue (dbL), highlighted in green. The observed probability of these quanta aggregations at ground state is more than 20 times greater than what would be expected if these quanta were randomly distributed (0.006 in Random column). Similarly, the right-handed d quarks, red (drR), green (dgR) and blue (dbR), were 20 times more likely than expected by chance alone. Finally, similar aggregation produced two leptons, the positron (e+R) and electron (e-L), completing the list of eight elementary particles predicted by the BM system state eqs. 1-6 (Table 1 in [10] and [1]).

These are stunning results. At 0 Kelvin, possible with the BM simulator, there is zero net particle motion, although 1-states continue to move in their proton or electron bit cycles. Yet, considering all possible states with energy E = 3 in Fig. 10, all the energy is confined to only 8 configurations which correspond to eight elementary particles predicted by the spot cube model (Fig. 1). Not only do the time evolution eqs. 7-17 "create" these particles, they persist after cooling to 0 Kelvin.

In sum, now we know a lot more about how particles exist in our universe. These eight elementary particles are recognized in the Standard Model. The original 2010 BM paper [10] itemized how combinations of these eight account for the three generations of Standard Model particles.

Particle Formation Thresholds
The time development laws also determine the minimum energy density required or threshold for formation of each particle type via quanta aggregation.

Fig. 11: Particle Creation Energy Density Thresholds

Fig. 11 shows the energy density threshold for appearance of right-handed matter d quarks (dR) is significantly below that expected by chance alone (Exp). Further, in eq. 17, the SUVF bit operations order (scalar, unconditional, vector and strong respectively) is clearly best in producing matter d quarks.

Fig. 11 also illustrates that order of the bit operations matters. Technically speaking, the bit operations don't commute. That is, different orders produce different results. Thus, one and only one bit operation order in BM eq. 17 can be physically correct.

One point to take home is that the universe runs by applying eq. 17 repeatedly, in what programmers might call a "loop". So far, we now have the universe up and running.

Nucleogenesis
The proton (hadron) bit cycle aggregates 1-states in adjacent spot cubes. This is a foundational principle in nucleogenesis in nuclear physics [12]. To summarize, each spot cube can be designated as "home" for a proton, electron or both (neutron). That is, a nucleon (proton or neutron) is associated with a spot cube.

Fig. 12: Proton Cycle Network Connecting Spot Cubes

Fig. 5 showed the 42 loci in the proton bit cycle. Recall that parts of the cycle extend into the next spot cube above, and parts of it extend into the lower left or lower right as illustrated by the arrows in Fig. 12, left. These extentions connect the home spot cube of a nucleon to three adjacent spot cubes.

Fig. 5 also showed that a nucleon bit cycle does not include quanta traffic in the positron spot in its home spot cube. What might this home spot cube positron spot do? Each spot unit in this home spot cube positron spot is part of the proton bit cycles in three neighboring spot cubes. This connectivity is illustrated by the arrows in Fig. 12, right. Hence, each spot cube is part of a proton cycle network connecting it to six adjacent spot cubes.

The function of the proton cycle network is atom and isotope formation such as presented in the periodic table of elements. How would this work? If the number of energy quanta increases in a proton bit cycle, where might they go? Not just anywhere. The proton cycle network indicates the most likely outcome, namely dispersion of quanta to neighboring spot cubes resulting in generation of objects with higher nucleon count and atomic number. This is a foundational principle in nuclear physics. Future nuclear physics books might well start with this phenomenon.

Periodic Table of Elements
Fig. 13 shows proton-electron distance as a function of energy density [13] from absolute vacuum, defined as zero 1-states, up to maximum, where every locus is in the 1-state.

Fig. 13: Proton-Electron Distance Depends on Energy Density

Very low energy densities below the proton or hydrogen threshold may be characterized as an electron gas in perfect vacuum.

Above the proton threshold, a neutron threshold may be defined at which neutrons are first observed. The electron spot in a proton home spot cube is not part of the proton bit cycle in Fig. 5. Indeed, the electron spot has its own bit cycle. If three M-type quanta make their way into that spot, a neutron is formed. This event has its own higher threshold.

At about 0.14 energy density, the dip in the proton-electron plot is thought to indicate increased neutron abundance as nuclei with more nucleons and higher Z elements are formed.

Higher Z atomic nuclei are generated as energy density was increased to about 0.6 of maximum completing the periodic table of elements. The amazing stair-step decrease in observed proton-electron distance may reveal non-random structuring of the geometric arrangement of nucleons in nuclei as heavier elements are generated.

Above about 0.6 energy density, in the range labelled Plasma in Fig. 13, the dramatic increase in proton-electron distance may indicate that ionization becomes predominant. Of course, this does not exclude ionization events at substantially lower energy densities.

Finally, above about 0.75 energy density, lepton-quark soup occurs, where individual particles such as protons or electrons are not clearly definable in such extremely high energy volumes. As reported previously [13], this high energy range is called "lepton-quark" soup becasue the quantity of leptons is greater than quarks.

CERN researchers do not appear to have much of a good idea of what they are doing [14]. They name this as a "quark-gluon" soup. By the way, they talk about "proton-proton collisions" up to 13 Tev energies, while it is likely that these are really soup beams that they are colliding, not actual specifically definable protons.

With the foregoing aggregation events producing atoms in the periodic table of elements, we have gone a long way toward a very interesting universe.

Molecules
A further major aggregation step is formation of molecules. Chemists have done well describing processes of molecule formation.

Life
Next, biologists and biochemists added shock and awe to our universe with huge molecules in DNA and proteins. Starting with the spot unit in binary mechanics, not only may a universe be created, it can also be populated with living organisms.

Start with the best theory of everything; get the best cosmological model. Build from BM full quantization postulates and devices called spot units; get everything in a wonderful universe.

Discussion
When Guesswork Fails. Notice that all of the aggregation steps described involve collection of energy quanta into smaller volumes. Not only does this sound like "gravity", these aggregation events define gravitational phenomena. Therefore, BM equations which demonstrably produce aggregation events provide the best mathematical model of these phenomena. Rigorous application of the scientific method [15] is superior to blind guesswork.

Day and Night. BM replaced the theory that space and time are continuous which has guided science for millennia. BM postulated full quantization of space, time and energy. As a consequence, BM equations provided a new definition of system state and time evolution. In addition, this article presented how these equations produce a fully functional universe. And not just any universe. The data indicates that BM generates the specific universe observed. What are the odds of that? This is the road to the best cosmological model.

All other efforts in theoretical physics continue to embrace the outdated theory of continuous space and time. To make matters worse, most investigators agree that these efforts are incomplete, whether it be the Standard Model, quantum mechanics, Special Relativity or General Relativity, among many other serious defects [14]. Therefore, some strive to combine or "unify" these approaches in apparent endless hope of violating the "two wrongs don't make a right" rule.

The worst problem of all for the incomplete theories is that the sun rises every morning. That is, as far as known, the universe is up and running. This observation is a daily reminder to the proponents of those failing theories that a new approach with different axioms or postulates, such as full quantization in BM, may be required to achieve a minimally acceptable understanding of how the universe works.

References
[1] Keene, J. J. "Binary mechanics postulates" JBinMech November, 2020.
[2] Keene, J. J. "Quantum technology advance" JBinMech September, 2025.
[3] Keene, J. J. "How to derive the primary and secondary physical constants" JBinMech March, 2025.
[4] Keene, J. J. "Spot unit components of elementary particles" JBinMech October, 2014.
[5] Keene, J. J. "Proton and electron bit cycles" JBinMech April, 2015.
[6] Keene, J. J. "Law of motion based on mechanism of motion" JBinMech March, 2025.
[7] Keene, J. J. "Vacuum composition" JBinMech December, 2019.
[8] Keene, J. J. "Physics glossary" JBinMech May, 2011.
[9] Keene, J. J. "Light speed derivation" JBinMech February, 2020.
[10] Keene, J. J. "Binary mechanics" JBinMech July, 2010.
[11] Keene, J. J. "Zero Kelvin particle states" JBinMech May, 2018.
[12] Keene, J. J. "Proton cycle network: foundational principle in nuclear physics" JBinMech March, 2025.
[13] Keene, J. J. "Elementary particle energies" JBinMech April, 2015.
[14] Keene, J. J. "Physics follies: post-game forensics" JBinMech October, 2025.
[15] Keene, J. J. "Motion law: gravitation edition" JBinMech June, 2020.

© 2025 James J Keene <