Proton Cycle Network: Foundational Principle in Nuclear Physics

Abstract and Introduction
How do positively charged protons aggregate in the small volume of an atomic nucleus in apparent contradiction of Coulomb's law that like charges repel? Neutrons in atomic nuclei may increase average distance between protons and partly explain this proton aggregation. Present popular wisdom is that a nuclear force binds protons in atomic nuclei. However, "nuclear force" may be little more than a label for the phenomenon rather than an explanation of it. Based on discoveries of the internal structure of the proton and its real intrinsic spin (Fig. 1) [1] [2] [3] [4], this paper defines a proton cycle network as a foundational principle of nuclear physics.

Fig. 1: Proton Bit Cycle Defines Real Intrinsic Spin

Background

Fig. 2: QM Amplitude Parsed in BM Full Quantization

The universe manifests the equations of a TOE (theory of everything) known as binary mechanics (BM) [5]. Antiquated 20th century quantum mechanics (QM) is still advocated by a great many physicists even now. BM was developed from outdated QM by adding the postulates of full quantization of energy, space and time. Results from QM could only give a probability for a physical event, obtained from a complex number called the wave function amplitude (Fig. 2, upper left).

The content in a complex number can be parsed and energy quantified by limiting abs(x) and abs(y) to 0 or 1 to get the first BM equations for two kinds of energy: M and L (Fig. 2, upper). Length was quantized with BM primary length constant L [5], a spatial object may be defined called the spot unit in which the energy units are located, called M and L loci. 1-states in M or L loci are fundamental energy units called "quanta".

Three spot units may be combined in a 3D Euclidean space to form a spot (Fig. 2, lower right). Eight permutations of complex amplitude components define a spot cube which predicts eight elementary particles: three d (down) quarks and the electron and their antiparticles (Fig. 2, lower left). Prior to full quantization in BM, particle physicists developed the Standard Model with many so-called "elementary particles" organized into three generations, which now are seen as the eight BM elementary particles and many combinations of them.

Finally, space contains (or is) a lattice of these spot cubes. Each spot cube is home to one proton bit cycle, which has 42 quanta locations (Fig. 1). Thus, there are 2⁴² possible states. This provides for tremenous variability and complexity. Hence, this bit cycle may be named the hadron bit cycle, including a vast variety of particles and their energies above ground state.

The Proton Cycle Network

Fig. 3: Proton Cycle Distributes Quanta To Six Spot Cube Neighbors

Note that three parts of the proton bit cycle sequence are located in neighboring spot cubes: (1) above, (2) lower left and (3) lower right (Fig. 1). Each of these three departures from the home spot cube consist of four quanta loci. This result is summarized by three black arrows respectively in Fig. 3, left.

We can flip the spot Cube over and look at the other side in Fig. 3, right. The antimatter left-handed d quark spots (light blue, red and green) can exchange quanta with the positron spot (grey). As shown in Fig. 1, the positron spot is not included in the proton cycle of its spot cube that is the home or base for the proton cycle. The positron spot in that base spot cube connects its proton cycle in three additional directions [6]. Thus, all six faces of the base spot cube share energy quanta with neighboring spot cubes.

Incoming quanta increase energy content within a particular spot cube and its proton bit cycle. This quanta absorption may increase a proton above its ground state. Then, as quanta are emitted from a proton cycle, that energy doesn't get dispersed just anywhere. It is not just thrown all over the place. That emitted energy is distributed to six neighboring spot cubes by the structure of the proton bit cycle itself as well as through the positron spot in the proton cycle home spot cube.

As a result, the neighboring spot cubes are favored to capture these emitted quanta and to accumulate enough to reach threshold for a detectable proton particle to be formed. These event sequences favor formation of atomic nuclei with higher atomic numbers. In short, the Periodic Table of elements is built using the protron cycle network.

The foregoing analysis is a foundational principle in nuclear physics. Nuclear physics textbooks of tomorrow will probably start with these ideas required to better understand the phenomena presented.

Key Energy Density Thresholds

Fig. 4: Key Thresholds vs Quanta Energy Density

Fig. 4 shows the span of energy density from absolute vacuum at zero quanta energy density up to maximum density (1 is 100%) [7]. With full quantization in BM, a maximum energy density is an inescapable conclusion, in contrast to the faulty theory that space and time are continuous in which infinite energy density may be deemed possible. Indeed, with the obsolete continuous space and time assumption, theorists can say almost any weird thing and get away with it. In contrast, with full quantization in BM, there is a rather strict scientific discipline where further steps must rigorously and logically follow from its first principles.

This density range is plotted versus proton-electron distance, based on the proton and electron cycle quanta "center of gravity" positions included in the Binary Mechanics Lab Simulator ouput file.

An "electron gas" may be studied near absolute vacuum below the hydrogen (proton) threshold [8]. At the proton threshold, hydrogen appears. A higher energy density is required for formation of neutrons and hence, deuterium. In the proton bit cycle (Fig. 1), there are no loci in the electron spot. If a proton has formed in a spot cube, if quanta make their way into its electron spot and if there are three M-type quanta to form an electron particle there, then a neutron is formed at its own higher threshold for that event to occur.

After low Z atoms form, proton-electron distance starts to decrease as energy density increases which means, in my opinion, that atomic nuclei form with greater atomic numbers as the entire Periodic Table has formed at much higher density around 0.62 of maximum.

Above 0.62 density, protons and electrons start to dissociate from each other producing increasing proton-electron distance, consistent with the notion of plasma formation.

Finally, above to this plasma range, extremely high quanta density may be characterized as a lepton-quark soup since leptons outnumber quarks [7].

For reference, at CERN, they really don't have much of a good idea of what they're actually even doing and they wrongly call this a quark-gluon soup. By the way, their grant proposals and research reports talk about proton-proton collisions up at 13 TeV energies. These are really soup beams that they are colliding at these high energies, not proton-proton beams as they claim and as you can clearly see in Fig. 4, right.

Summary and Conclusions
With the proton (hadran) cycle network, aggregation of quanta results in atomic nuclei with higher atomic numbers to include the entire Periodic Table of elements and isotopes. This network may also determine the relative stability of atomic nuclei configurations. Thus, the proton cycle network is a foundational principle in nuclear physics.

Further, discovery of the proton cycle network lead to the discovery of the mechanism of all particle motion which led to a new law of motion in physics [9]:
References
[1] Keene, J. J. "The central baryon bit cycle" JBinMech March, 2011.
[2] Keene, J. J. "Proton and electron bit cycles" JBinMech April, 2015.
[3] Keene, J. J. "Intrinsic proton spin derivation" JBinMech December, 2018.
[4] Keene, J. J. "Proton structure 3D animation" JBinMech May, 2020.
[5] Keene, J. J. "Binary mechanics postulates" JBinMech November, 2020.
[6] Keene, J. J. "Three proton bit cycles from one positron spot" JBinMech April, 2015.
[7] Keene, J. J. "Elementary particle energies" JBinMech April, 2015.
[8] Keene, J. J. "Electron gas standing waves" JBinMech February, 2016.
[9] Keene, J. J. "A law of motion" JBinMech September, 2011.

© 2025 James J Keene